The article The black press: setting the political agenda during World War II - African Americans and World War II is written by Charles G. Spellman with additional information on the black press. I will read it later.
CREDO FOR THE NEGRO PRESS
I Shall Be A Crusader...
I Shall Be An Advocate...
I Shall Be A Herald...
I Shall Be A Mirror And A Record...
I Shall Have Integrity...
I Shall be a crusader and an advocate, a mirror and a record, a herald and a spotlight, and I Shall not falter.
So help me God.
The Credo, wrtten by Journal and Guide editor P. Bernard Young, Jr. represents a declaration to provide truth, honesty, and service to the black community. When the Credo was written, the black press was the sole "Voice of the Negro." As a crusader, the black press fought vigorously for Negro rights. As an advocate, the black press fought vigorously to ban "Jim Crow" laws which legally sanctioned segregation. As a herald, the black press was the bearer of both good and bad news, always heralding those causes that others would suppress out of bias or perceived lack of interest.
The black press gained its respectful reputation for being the "Voice of the Negro" in the early days of segregation and unconscionable discrimination. African Americans were often negatively depicted in the white media. The negative images were reflective of the perceptions held by many whites, resulting in the development of the advocacy movement by the black press.
In the early years of the black presence in America, access to the white press was denied to the "Negro." As a result, African Americans founded their own newspapers. In 1827, Samuel Cornish and John B. Russwurm established the first black newpaper, Freedom's Journal writing in an editorial:
"We wish to plead our own cause. Too long have others spoken for us. Too long has the public been deceived by misrepresentations in the things which concern us dearly."
Although Cornish and Russwurm were primarily concerned with negative aspects of the colonization of free African Americans and the gradualism of emancipation as advocated by the white press, they addressed many issues of concern to their readership. From this auspicious beginning, the black press became the primary voice for information and journalistic expression in the black community. That role remained a key one up to and during World War II.
When the war began, the news and information needs of the black community increased. The absence of news about African Americans in the segregated white media inspired additional coverage by the black press. As the only means of constant mass communication information particularly relevant to the African American, the black press assumed the awesome responsibility of relating the activities of the war to its readership. As reporting increased, so did newspaper circulation. Since the primary news of interest to African Americans appeared in the black press, it reached its peak circulation during the war years. The Pittsburgh Courier had a circulation of 350,000; the Chicago Defender, 230,000; the Baltimore Afro-American, 170,000 and the Norfolk Journal and Guide, 100,000.
The black press enhanced the political awareness of its readership during World War II while mobilizing black public opinion. As America went to war to fight against Nazism and Fascism abroad, the black press formulated a political agenda at home. Theoretically, "the [black] press did not tell its readership what to think; it told its readership what to think about."
The black press reported vital information that increased awareness about war activities and black participation in the armed services. As significant political information about the state of black affairs in the Armed Services was gathered and reported in the black press, black opinion leaders emerged. Ministers, politicians and community leaders were responsible conduits for spreading the word about the war. Consequently, government, political, social, and wartime issues were covered with great care. Important issues concerning the acceptance of African Americans in the armed forces, the types of jobs African Americans would have in the armed forces, the treatment of African Americans in the Armed forces, and whether or not African Americans would be allowed the "right to fight" for their country were among the most important issues covered.
What emerges from the analysis of news coverage is a composite picture of a black press that generally supported the involvement and participation of African Americans in the war effort. For example, the Afro-American Newspaper, based in Baltimore, Maryland, led the way. In an editorial entitled 'We Are For War," September 16, 1939, the editors provided the following reasons for supporting the war:
1. The War would stimulate black migration to the Northern industrial states, a benefit to the race,
2. The War would mean eventual freedom for African Americans, and
3. African Americans were against Hitler because of his race hatred of Jews.
In a strategic move, the press began to look carefully at the Nazi situation, comparing Nazism to racism. It was concluded that there was little difference between the two. Although Hitler had not been guilty of oppressing African Americans, his hatred of Jews sent a clear message that Nazism and racism were based upon similar principles. One black newspaper, The Pittsburgh Courier provided a detailed analysis of Nazism and racism by comparing Germany and Georgia. It suggested that the only difference between the two was that Germany was planning to do what the South had already done. This vivid comparison caught the attention of the black press readership, mainly because "Negroes" had been so negatively affected by racism.
As the black press continued to address issues of concern to the black community, its role and function began to crystalize. It becomes clear, through editorial analysis, that the black press was a "team player." While some editorials justly questioned the segregationist and discriminatory policies of the military, a sampling of messages disseminated through the black press about the December 7, 1941 attack on Pearl Harbor reveals substantial support by the black press for the nation's war effort.
For example, the December 11, 1941 edition of the Savannah Tribune declared "The Black Tenth is ready," referring to the 10% black population, but wondered whether the country would let African Americans fight. The December 13, 1941 edition of The Afro-American headlined 'Mr. President, Count on Us;' "Strongly proclaims an allegiance to America" appeared as a headline in the December 18, 1941 edition of the Chicago Bee. One of the strongest statements appeared in the California Eagle. The editorial vowed that the newspaper would "Continue to fight against segregation and discrimination but indicated that it would also emphasize citizenship duties since quasi-democracy in America was superior to Fascism and therefore Nazism." As the war progressed, so did the vigilant news gathering and reporting efforts of the black press. Issue oriented messages were regularly sent to a large, disenchanted black audience anxious for information about their friends, relatives and loved ones.
A primary concern to the audience of the black press was the unequal treatment of African Americans in the military. Although abhorrent social conditions related to inequality at home garnered much of the national news, the black press was also instrumental in seeking military justice for soldiers. As wartime casualties increased, so did the numbers of black men and women soldiers. As the number of soldiers increased so did the number of complaints about social injustices. Many were stationed in southern towns where race relations were at best poor. Many of the young men and women were from the North and had not experienced the "Jim Crow" laws they were subjected to upon their arrival. Soon, the black newspapers published stories detailing the complaints of soldiers. Selected opinion leaders were motivated to action after reading the complaints, focusing on the segregationist policies of the military and seeking social justice for the troops. Titles of selected articles appearing in the black press clearly document some of the concerns and issues:
"The Army's policy of racial segregation," Chicago Defender, April 18, 1942
"Military justice," Pittsburgh Courier, December 11, 1943
"Will They try to Discredit Our G.I.s?" New York Amsterdam News, December 2, 1944
"Wacs who staged a strike to protest discriminatory treatment and hostility directed at them," The Afro-American, March 31, 1945; Pittsburgh Courier, March 24, 1945.
Rather than suppress these politically oriented issues about the conditions affecting the lives of black soldiers at home and abroad, the black press chose to aggressively pursue and report all the news, whether good or bad.
On the home front, one of the most significant issues was "the fight for the right to fight." This struggle evolved because of the armed services practice that clearly restricted the use of Negroes in combat missions. Justifications for the practice were the Negroes perceived inability to fight, the impression that Negroes were afraid to fight based on their performance in World War I, and the fear that Negroes could not be trusted with weapons. As a result, the armed services developed a practice to only employ African Americans in menial service jobs behind the lines. The practice relegated black soldiers to a degraded status and further perpetuated their status as second class citizens.
The "right to fight" campaign was supremely important to the cause of equality. To be successful, the fight for the "right to fight" campaign needed wide coverage. The editors of blakc newspapers concluded that a positive record of combat service would significantly further the cause of the African American's civil rights. The editors also wisely concluded that "full equality" could not be achieved for African Americans without a combat record that showed black contributions to the war effort. With this goal, the editors of the black press began to write stories reflecting the right to fight campaign strategy.
To further emphasize the necessity for the success of the "right to fight," the November 27, 1943 edition of the Journal and Guide highlighted the importance of black soldiers being allowed to fight in combat units. "If Negroes didn't fight on the front lines and stayed behind the lines, it could be reasoned that they were not fully entitled to their full share of the fruits of society."
The idea of African Americans actually fighting in combat situations was not received well nor fully accepted. However, the task of the black press was to convince its readership that full participation in the war effort, including combat, would eventually pave the road to freedom, justice and equality. The black press also had to show its readership that World War II was not just a "white man's war." Without black participation in the war effort, losing the war abroad could mean absolute defeat at home. What emerged from this strategic thinking was a struggle for victory on two fronts: victory at home and victory overseas. The double "V" victory struggle became a cause celebrated by the black press. The official campaign was named "The Double V Campaign." For readers of the black press this campaign slogan meant there could be no victory at home without a victory against the Axis powers abroad.
None of the accomplishments of the black press would have been possible without the help of black correspondents who were information gatheres and writers. Most messages and articles were processed through a government censor to make certain vital classified information was not revealed. Even so, the right and need to know about the war effort was significantly enhanced by the presence of black war correspondents. The Pittsburgh Courier, The Afro-American, Chicago Defender, and the Norfolk Journal and Guide had foreign correspondents. The National Negro Publishers Association and the Associated Negro Press filed sotries with several newspapers during the war.
Vincent Tubbs of the Baltimore Afro-American, one of the most notable foreign correspondents, was the first black journalist in the Pacific, arriving in March 1943. He filed numerous stories about conditions affecting the black troops. He later became a movie publicist in Hollywood.
The black press during World War II was the single most important information source for African Americans. The black press set the political agenda for African Americans and was a crusader for human and civil rights. When soldiers were treated badly, the black press investigated and printed the facts.
The primary function of the black press during World War II was to impart vital military, political, social and cultural information to its readership and to ultimately have a significant impact on military and political awareness and participation.
Key objectives were to impact the opinion formation process of the black reader and to move its readership to active participation in the affairs of state and country. The desired result was full citizenship rights. Based on a theory of social responsibility and the Credo for the Black Press, one can only conclude that the black public was well served by the black press during World War II.
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